DSM-IV and You

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Diagnostic Criteria for the most common mental disorders including: description, diagnosis, treatment, and research

findings. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), is published by the

American Psychiatric Association, Washington D.C., 1994, the main diagnostic reference of Mental Health professionals

The DSM-IV classification in its definition and description of the gender identity disorder omits a number of diagnostically

significant features. Although the critical analysis of the DSM-IV classification of the gender identity disorder has been

shown to be adequate, it nevertheless has shortcomings which may impede exact diagnosis.

Diagnostic Criteria for Gender Identity Disorder

Gender Identity Disorder not otherwise specified

Diagnostic Criteria for 302.3 Transvestic Fetishism

There are two components of Gender Identity Disorder, both of which must be present to make the diagnosis. Thee must be

evidence of a strong and persistent gross-gender identification, which is the desire to be, or the insistence that one is of the

other sex (Criteria A). This cross-gender identification must not merely be a desire for any perceived cultural advantages of

being the other sex. there must also be evidence of persistent discomfort about one’s assigned sex or a sense of

inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex (Criteria B). The diagnosis is not made if the individual has a concurrent

physical intersex condition (e.g., androgen insensitivity syndrome or congenital adrenal hyperplasia) (Criteria C). To make

the diagnosis, there must be evidence of clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important

In boys, the cross gender identification is manifested by a marked preoccupation with traditionally feminine activities. They

may have a preference for dressing in girls’ or women’s clothes or may improvise such items from available materials when

genuine articles are unavailable. Towels, aprons, and scarves are often used to represent long hair or skirts. There is a strong

attraction for the stereotypical games and pastimes of girls. They particularly enjoy playing house, drawing pictures of beautiful

girls and princesses, and watching television or videos of their favorite female-type dolls, such as Barbie, are often their favorite

toys, and girls are their preferred playmates. When playing "house", these boys role-play female figures. Most commonly

"mother roles", and often are quite preoccupied with female fantasy figures. they avoid rough-and-tumble play and competitive

sports and have little interest in cars and trucks or other no-aggressive but stereotypical boy’s toys. They may express a wish

to be a girl and assert that they will grow up to be a woman. they may insist on sitting to urinate and pretend not to have a penis

by pushing it in between their legs. More rarely, boys with Gender Identity Disorder may state that they find their penis or testes

disgusting, that they want to remove them, or that they have, or wish to have, a vagina.

Girls with Gender Identity Disorder display intense negative reactions to parental expectations or attempts to have them wear

dresses or other feminine attire. Some may refuse to attend school or social events where such clothes may be required. They

prefer boy’s clothing and short hair, are often misidentified by strangers as boys, and may ask to be called a boy’s name. Their

fantasy heroes are most often powerful male figures, such as Batman or Superman. these girls prefer boys as playmates, with

whom they share interests in contact sports, rough-and-tumble play and traditional boyhood games. they show little interest in

dolls or any form of feminine dress up or role-play activity. A girl with this disorder may occasionally refuse to urinate in a sitting

position. She may claim that she has or will grow a penis and may not want to grow breasts or menstruate. She may assert that

she will grow up to be a man. Such girls typically reveal marked cross-gender identification in role-play, dreams and fantasies.

Adults with Gender Identity Disorder are preoccupied with their wish to live as a member of the other sex. This preoccupation

may be manifested as an intense desire to adopt the social role of the other sex or to acquire the physical appearance of the

other sex through hormonal or surgical manipulation. Adults with this disorder are uncomfortable being regarded by others as,

or functioning in society as, a member of their designated sex. To varying degrees, they adopt the behavior, dress, and

mannerisms of the other sex. In private, these individuals may spend much time cross-dressed and working on the appearance

of being the other sex. Many attempt to pass in public as the other sex. With cross-dressing and hormonal treatment (and for

males, electrolysis), many individuals with this disorder may pass convincingly as the other sex. The sexual activity of these

individuals with same-sex partners is generally constrained by the preference that their partners neither see nor touch their

genitals. For some males who present later in life, (often following marriage), sexual activity with a woman is accompanied

by the fantasy of being lesbian lovers or that his partner is a man and he is a woman.

In adolescents, the clinical features may resemble either those of children or those of adults, depending on the individual’s

developmental level, and the criteria should be applied accordingly. In younger adolescents, it may be more difficult to arrive

at an accurate diagnosis because of the adolescent’s guardedness. This may be increased if the adolescent feels ambivalent

about cross-gender identification or feels that it is unacceptable to the family. The adolescent may be referred because the

parents or teachers are concerned about social isolation or peer teasing and rejection. In such circumstances, the diagnosis

should be reserved for those adolescents who appear quite cross-gender identified in their dress and who engage in behaviors

that suggest significant cross-gender identification (e.g., shaving legs in males). Clarifying the diagnosis in children and

adolescents may require monitoring over an extended period of time.

Distress or disability in individuals with Gender Identity Disorder is manifested differently across the life cycle. in young

children, distress is manifested by the stated unhappiness about their assigned sex. Preoccupation with cross-gender wishes

often interferes with ordinary activities. In older children, failure to develop age-appropriate same sex peer relationships and

skills often leads to isolation and distress, and some children may refuse to attend school because of the teasing or pressure

to dress in attire stereotypical of their assigned sex. in adolescents and adults, preoccupation with cross-gender wishes often

interferes with ordinary activities. Relationship difficulties are common and functioning at school or at work may be impaired.

For sexually mature individuals, the following specifiers may be noted based on the individual’s sexual orientation: Sexually

Attracted to Males, Sexually Attracted to Females, Sexually Attracted to Both, and Sexually Attracted to Neither. Males with

Gender Identity Disorder include substantial proportions with all four specifiers. Virtually all females with Gender Identity

Disorder will receive the same specifier-Sexually Attracted to Female- although there are exceptional cases involving females

The assigned diagnostic code depends on the individual’s current age: if the disorder occurs in childhood, the code 302.6 is

used; for an adolescent or adult, 302.85 is used.

Associated descriptive features and mental disorders.

Many individuals with Gender Identity Disorder become socially isolated. Isolation and ostracism contribute to low self

esteem and may lead to school aversion or dropping out of school. Peer ostracism and teasing are especially common

sequelae for boys with the disorder. Boys with Gender Identity Disorder often show marked feminine mannerisms and

speech patterns. The disturbance can be so pervasive that the mental lives of some individuals revolve only around those

activities that lessen gender distress. they are often preoccupied with appearance, especially early in the transition to living

in the opposite sex role. Relationships with one or both parents also may be seriously impaired. Some males with Gender

Identity Disorder resort to self-treatment with hormones and may very rarely perform their own castration or penectomy.

Especially in urban centers, some males with the disorder may engage in prostitution, which places them at a high risk for

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Suicide attempts and Substance-Related Disorders are commonly

Children with Gender Identity Disorder may manifest coexisting Separation Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder,

and symptoms of depression. Adolescents are particularly at risk for depression and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.

In adults, anxiety and depressive symptoms may be present. Some adult males have a history of Transvestic Fetishism as

well as other paraphilias. Associated Personality Disorders are more common among males than among females being

There is no diagnostic test specific for Gender Identity Disorder. In the presence of a normal physical examination,

karyotyping for sex chromosomes and sex hormone assays are usually not indicated. Psychological testing may reveal

cross-gender identification of behavior patterns.

Associated physical examination findings and general medical conditions.

Individuals with Gender Identity Disorder have normal genitalia (in contrast to the ambiguous genitalia or hypogonadism

found in physical intersex conditions). Adolescents and adult males with Gender Identity Disorder may show breast

enlargement resulting from hormone ingestion, hair denuding from temporary or permanent epilation, and other physical

changes as a result of procedures such as rhinoplasty or thyroid cartilage shaving (surgical reduction of the Adam’s Apple).

Distorted breasts or breast rashes may be seen in females who wear breast binders. Postsurical complications in genetic

females include prominent chest wall scars, and in generic males, vaginal strictures, rectovaginal fistulas, urethral stenoses,

and misdirected urinary streams. Adult females with Gender Identity Disorder may have a higher than expected likelihood of

Females with Gender Identity Disorders generally experience less ostracism because of cross-gender interests and may

suffer less from peer rejection, at least until adolescence. In child clinic samples, there are approximately five boys for each

girl referred with this disorder. In adult clinic samples, men outnumber women by about two or three times. In children, the

referral bias towards males may partly reflect the greater stigma that gross-gender behavior carries for boys than for girls.

There are no recent epidemiological studies to provide data on prevalence of Gender Identity Disorder. Data from smaller

countries in Europe with access to total population statistics and referrals suggest that roughly 1 per 30,000 adult males

and 1 per 100,000 adult females seek sex-reassignment surgery.

For clinically referred children, onset of cross-gender interests and activities is usually between ages 2 and 4 years, and

some parents report that their child has always had cross-gender interests. Only a very small number of children with

gender Identity Disorder will continue to have symptoms that meet criteria for Gender Identity Disorder in later adolescence

or adulthood. Typically, children are referred around the time of school entry because of parental concern that what they

regarded as a phase does not appear to be passing. Most children with Gender Identity Disorder display less overt cross-

gender behaviors with time, parental intervention, or response from peers. By late adolescence or adulthood, about three-

quarters of boys who had a childhood history of Gender Identity Disorder report a homosexual or bisexual orientation, but

without concurrent Gender Identity Disorder. Most of the remainder report a heterosexual orientation, also without

concurrent Gender Identity Disorder. The corresponding percentages for sexual orientation in girls are not known. some

adolescents may develop a clearer cross-gender identification and request sex-reassignment surgery or may continue in

a chronic course of gender confusion or dysphoria.

In adult males, there are two different courses for the development of Gender Identity Disorder. The first is a continuation

of Gender Identity Disorder that had an onset in childhood or early adolescence. These individuals typically present in late

adolescence or adulthood. In the other course, the more overt signs of cross-gender identification appear later and more

gradually, with a clinical presentation in early to mid-adulthood usually following, but sometimes concurrent with, Transvestic

Fetishism. The later-onset group may be more fluctuating in the degree of cross-gender identification, more ambivalent about

sex-reassignment surgery, more likely to be sexually attracted to women, and less likely to be satisfied after sex-

reassignment surgery. Males with Gender Identity disorder who are sexually attracted to males tend to present in

adolescence or early childhood with a lifelong history of gender dysphoria. In contrast, those who are sexually attracted to

females, to both males and females, or to neither sex tend to present later and typically have a history of Transvestic

Fetishism. If Gender Identity Disorder is present in adulthood, it tends to have a chronic course, but spontaneous remission

Gender Identity disorder can be distinguished from simple nonconformity to stereo-typical sex role behavior by the

extent and pervasiveness of the cross-gender wishes, interests, and activities. This disorder is not meant to describe a

child’s nonconformity to stereotypic sex-role behavior as, for example, in "tomboyishness" in girls or "sissyish" behavior

in boys. Rather, it represents a profound disturbance of the individual’s sense of identity with regard to maleness or

femaleness. Behavior in children that merely does not fit the cultural stereotype of masculinity or femininity should not be

given the diagnosis unless the full syndrome is present, including marked distress or impairment.

Transvestic Fetishism occurs in heterosexual (or bisexual) men for whom the cross-dressing behavior is for the purpose

of sexual excitement. Aside from cross-dressing, most individuals with Transvestic Fetishism do not have a history of

childhood cross-gender behaviors. Males with presentation that meets full criteria for Gender Identity Disorder as well as

Transvestic Fetishism should be given both diagnoses. If gender dysphoria is present in an individual with Transvestic

Fetishism but full criteria for Gender Identity Disorder are not met, the specifier With Gender Dysphoria can be used.

The category Gender Identity Disorder Not Otherwise specified can be used for individuals who have a gender identity

problem with concurrent congenital intersex condition (e.g., androgen insensitivity syndrome or congenital adrenal

hyperplasia). In Schizophrenia, there may rarely be delusions of belonging to the other sex. Insistence by a person with

Gender Identity Disorder that he or she is of the other sex is not considered a delusion, because what is invariably meant

is that the person feels like a member of the other sex rather than truly believes that he or she is a member of the other sex.

In very rare cases, however, Schizophrenia and severe Gender Identity Disorder may coexist.

Diagnostic Criteria for Gender Identity Disorder

A. A strong persistent cross-gender identification (not merely a desire for any perceived cultural advantages of being the other sex).

In children, the disturbance is manifested by four (or more) of the following:

Repeatedly stated desire to be, or insistence that he or she is, the other sex.

In boys, preference for cross-dressing or simulating female attire; In girls, insistence on wearing only

Strong and persistent preferences for cross-sex roles in make believe play or persistent fantasies of being

Intense desire to participate in the stereotypical games and pastimes of the other sex.

Strong preference for playmates of the other sex.

In adolescents and adults, the disturbance is manifested by symptoms such as a stated desire to be the other sex,

frequent passing as the other sex, desire to live or be treated as the other sex, or the conviction that he or she has the

typical feelings and reactions of the other sex.

B. Persistent discomfort with his or her sex or sense of inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex.

In children, the disturbance is manifested by any of the following:

In boys, assertion that his penis or testes are disgusting or will disappear or assertion that it would be better

not to have a penis, or aversion toward rough-and-tumble play and rejection of male stereotypical toys, games,

In girls, rejection of urinating in a sitting position, assertion that she has or will grow a penis, or assertion that

she does not want to grow breasts or menstruate, or marked aversion toward normative feminine clothing.

In adolescents and adults, the disturbance is manifested by symptoms such as preoccupation with getting rid

of primary and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., request for hormones, surgery, or other procedures to

physically alter sexual characteristics to simulate the other sex) or belief that he or she was born the wrong

C. The disturbance is not concurrent with physical intersex condition.

D. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

302.6 Gender Identity Disorder in Children

302.85 Gender Identity Disorder in Adolescents or Adults

302.6 Gender Identity Disorder Not Otherwise Specified

This category is included for coding disorders in gender identity that are not classifiable as a specific Gender Identity

Intersex conditions (e.g., androgen insensitivity syndrome or congenital adrenal hyperplasia) and accompanying

Transient, stress-related cross-dressing behavior

Persistent preoccupation with castration or penectomy without a desire to acquire the sex characteristics of the

The paraphiliac focus of Transvestic Fetishism involves cross-dressing. Usually the male with Transvestic Fetishism keeps

a collection of female clothes that he intermittently uses to cross-dress. While cross dressed, he usually masturbates,

imagining himself to be both the male and the female object of his sexual fantasy. This disorder has been described only

in heterosexual males. Transvestic Fetishism is to be diagnosed when cross-dressing occurs exclusively during the course

Transvestic phenomena range from occasional solitary wearing of female clothes to extensive involvement in a transvestic

subculture. Some males wear a single item of women's apparel (e.g., underwear or hosiery) under their masculine attire.

Other males with Transvestic Fetishism dress entirely as females and wear makeup. The degree to which the cross-dressed

individual successfully appears to be a female varies, depending on mannerisms, body habitus, and cross-dressing skill.

When not cross-dressed, the male with Transvestic Fetishism is usually unremarkably masculine. Although his basic

preference is heterosexual, he tends to have few sexual partners and may have engaged in occasional homosexual acts.

An associated feature may be the presence of Sexual Masochism. The disorder typically begins with cross-dressing in

childhood or early adolescence. In many cases, the cross-dressing is not done in public until adulthood. The initial

experience may involve partial or total cross-dressing; partial cross-dressing often progresses to complete cross-dressing.

A favored article of clothing may become erotic in itself and may be used habitually, first in masturbation and later in

intercourse. In some individuals, the motivation for cross-dressing may change over time, temporarily or permanently, with

sexual arousal in response to the cross-dressing diminishing or disappearing. In such instances, the cross-dressing

becomes an antidote to anxiety or depression or contributes to a sense of peace and calm.

In other individuals, gender dysphoria may emerge, especially under situational stress with or without symptoms of

depression. For a small number of individuals, the gender dysphoria becomes a fixed part of the clinical picture and is

accompanied by the desire to dress and live permanently as a female and to seek hormonal or surgical reassignment.

Individuals with Transvestic Fetishism often seek treatment when gender dysphoria emerges. The subtype with Gender

Dysphoria is provided to allow the clinician to note the presence of gender dysphoria as part of Tranvestic Fetishism.

Diagnostic Criteria for 302.3 Transvestic Fetishism

A. Over a period of at least 6 months, in a heterosexual male, recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies,

sexual urges, or behaviors involving cross-dressing.

B. The fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social,

occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

Specify if: With Gender Dysphoria: if the person has persistent discomfort with gender role or identity.

Citation: The American Psychiatric Association.